Peptide Guides
In-depth, compound-by-compound guides covering mechanism, regulatory status, and evidence quality.
80 articlesConveglipron Explained: Huadong Medicine's Oral GLP-1 Candidate in Phase 3 Trials
Huadong Medicine's oral GLP-1 candidate conveglipron is already in Phase 3 testing for type 2 diabetes. Here's what it is and how far along it actually is.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesGonadorelin Explained: The Pulsatile GnRH Peptide Behind Fertility and Hormone Therapy
Gonadorelin was FDA-approved decades ago under two different brand names, both now discontinued. Here's what it does, and why it's resurfaced in TRT and fertility clinics.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesGlutathione Explained: The Antioxidant Tripeptide Behind IV Drips and Skin Treatments
Glutathione is a real tripeptide your cells already make. The IV and injectable versions sold for 'detox' and skin lightening are a different story.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesLarazotide Acetate Explained: The Tight-Junction Peptide in Late-Stage Celiac Disease Trials
Larazotide acetate is a non-absorbed peptide designed to tighten the gut barrier in celiac disease. Here's what it is, how it differs from dietary treatment, and where it stands in clinical trials.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesMET-097i and MET-233i Explained: Pfizer's Metsera Obesity Pipeline
What MET-097i and MET-233i are, the Phase 2b data behind Pfizer's acquisition of Metsera, and where these investigational obesity candidates stand in development.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesNavigating Insurance Denials and Prior Authorization for GLP-1 Medications
A general guide to how prior authorization works for GLP-1 drugs, why claims get denied, and the typical appeal steps patients and prescribers can use to challenge a denial.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesTerlipressin (Terlivaz) Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide for Hepatorenal Syndrome
What terlipressin is, how this vasopressin-analog peptide treats hepatorenal syndrome in hospitalized patients, and what its approval trial and boxed warning involve.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesPlecanatide (Trulance) Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide for Chronic Constipation and IBS-C
What plecanatide is, how this guanylate cyclase-C agonist peptide treats chronic constipation and IBS-C, and how its trial results and safety profile compare to the body's own gut hormone.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesAngiotensin II Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide for Septic Shock
What angiotensin II (Giapreza) is, how this FDA-approved peptide raises blood pressure in septic and other distributive shock, and the trial evidence behind its 2017 approval.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesCorticotropin (ACTH) Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide Hormone Behind Acthar Gel
What corticotropin (ACTH) is, how the FDA-approved drug Acthar Gel works, and why its decades-old approval history raises different evidence questions than newer peptide drugs.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesSecretin Explained: The FDA-Approved Diagnostic Peptide for Pancreatic and Stomach Disorders
What secretin is, how the FDA-approved drug ChiRhoStim is used to diagnose pancreatic and stomach conditions, and what controlled trials found when it was studied as an autism treatment.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesOrforglipron (Foundayo) Explained: The First Oral GLP-1 Pill Without Food or Water Restrictions
What orforglipron (Foundayo) is, how it differs chemically from other GLP-1 drugs, its FDA approval status, and what the ATTAIN trial program showed.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesDanuglipron Explained: Why Pfizer Discontinued Its Oral GLP-1 Candidate
Danuglipron was Pfizer's oral GLP-1 weight-loss candidate until a liver-injury signal in a Phase 1 trial ended the program in April 2025. Here's what happened and why it matters.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesBimagrumab Explained: An Antibody Approach to Preserving Muscle During GLP-1 Weight Loss
Bimagrumab isn't a peptide, it's an investigational antibody being studied alongside semaglutide to reduce the muscle loss that comes with GLP-1 weight loss. Here's what the BELIEVE trial found.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesPasireotide Explained: The FDA-Approved Somatostatin Analog for Cushing's Disease and Acromegaly
Pasireotide (Signifor, Signifor LAR) is an FDA-approved peptide that binds a broader set of somatostatin receptors than older drugs like octreotide. Here's how it works and why it carries a notable blood sugar warning.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesLinaclotide Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide for IBS-C and Chronic Constipation
Linaclotide (Linzess) is an FDA-approved peptide that works locally in the gut rather than through the bloodstream. Here's how it treats IBS-C and chronic constipation, and who should avoid it.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesLanreotide Explained: The FDA-Approved Somatostatin Analog for Acromegaly and Neuroendocrine Tumors
Lanreotide (Somatuline Depot) is an FDA-approved peptide drug used for acromegaly and certain neuroendocrine tumors. Here's how it works and how it compares to octreotide.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesNesiritide Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide for Acute Heart Failure, and Why Its Use Declined
Nesiritide (Natrecor) is an FDA-approved recombinant peptide for acute decompensated heart failure. Here's what it is, and why post-approval safety data changed how often it's used.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesCalcitonin Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide Hormone for Paget's Disease and Osteoporosis
Calcitonin salmon is an FDA-approved peptide hormone used for Paget's disease, hypercalcemia, and some cases of osteoporosis. Here's how it works, and the safety signal that narrowed its use.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesLixisenatide Explained: The Discontinued GLP-1 Peptide Behind Adlyxin
Lixisenatide was FDA-approved for type 2 diabetes in 2016 and later withdrawn from the U.S. market, not for safety reasons, but because once-weekly competitors made its daily dosing routine obsolete.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesGlucagon Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide Hormone for Severe Hypoglycemia
How this 29-amino-acid peptide hormone rescues severe low blood sugar, and why its pathway shows up again in a new generation of weight-loss drugs.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesDegarelix Explained: The FDA-Approved GnRH Antagonist for Prostate Cancer
A synthetic decapeptide that blocks GnRH receptors directly, avoiding the initial testosterone surge seen with older prostate cancer therapies.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesAbaloparatide Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide for Osteoporosis
A PTHrP-analog peptide that favors new bone formation over resorption, approved for postmenopausal women and men at high fracture risk.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesMariTide Explained: Amgen's Monthly GIPR Antagonist/GLP-1 Agonist for Obesity
What MariTide (maridebart cafraglutide) is, how its antibody-peptide design enables once-monthly dosing, and what Phase 2 data show about its weight-loss and safety profile.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesEloralintide Explained: Eli Lilly's Selective Amylin Agonist for Obesity
What eloralintide is, how it works differently from GLP-1 drugs, its regulatory status, and what Phase 1 and Phase 2 trials have shown so far.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesAfamelanotide Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide Behind Scenesse
What afamelanotide is, how the FDA-approved implant works for erythropoietic protoporphyria, and what its clinical trials showed.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesIcatibant Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide for Hereditary Angioedema
What icatibant is, how this bradykinin receptor-blocking peptide treats acute hereditary angioedema attacks, and what its FDA approval was based on.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesTeriparatide Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide for Osteoporosis
What teriparatide (Forteo) is, how this FDA-approved bone-building peptide works, and how its osteosarcoma warning has changed as more human safety data accumulated.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesEnfuvirtide Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide That Blocks HIV From Entering Cells
What enfuvirtide (Fuzeon) is, how this FDA-approved peptide fusion inhibitor stops HIV from entering cells, and why it's now mainly reserved for treatment-experienced patients.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesPemvidutide Explained: Altimmune's Glucagon/GLP-1 Dual Agonist for MASH and Alcohol Use Disorder
What pemvidutide is, how its balanced glucagon/GLP-1 mechanism differs from approved obesity drugs, and what Phase 2b data shows for liver disease and weight loss.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesElamipretide (SS-31) Explained: The FDA-Approved Mitochondrial Peptide Behind Forzinity
Elamipretide, previously known by its research name SS-31, is FDA-approved as Forzinity for Barth syndrome. Here's what the peptide does, what it's actually approved for, and where the evidence stands.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesMazdutide Explained: The GLP-1/Glucagon Dual Agonist Approved in China
Mazdutide, jointly developed by Innovent Biologics and Eli Lilly, is approved in China for weight management and type 2 diabetes. Here's what the peptide is and where it stands with the FDA.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesPetrelintide Explained: Zealand Pharma's Amylin Analog Now in Phase 3 Trials
What petrelintide is, how amylin analogs work, and what the Phase 2 data and newly launched Phase 3 ZUPREME program show so far.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesDulaglutide Explained: The FDA-Approved GLP-1 Peptide Behind Trulicity
How dulaglutide's Fc-fusion design enables once-weekly dosing, and how it compares with newer GLP-1 drugs.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesOxytocin Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide Hormone Behind Pitocin
Oxytocin's narrow, FDA-approved obstetric use versus its much broader popular reputation as the "bonding hormone."
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesAmycretin Explained: Novo Nordisk's Dual GLP-1/Amylin Agonist
What amycretin is, how its dual mechanism works, and what the early trial data show ahead of Phase 3.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesEcnoglutide Explained: A New GLP-1 Peptide Approved in China
What ecnoglutide is, its cAMP-based mechanism, and its Chinese approval and Pfizer partnership.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesPeptide-Based Cancer Vaccines Explained: How They Work
How peptide-based cancer vaccines train the immune system against tumors, and where the research stands.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesDesmopressin Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide Hormone for Diabetes Insipidus
What desmopressin (DDAVP) is, how this FDA-approved synthetic vasopressin analog treats diabetes insipidus and related conditions, and how it differs from research-grade peptides.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesPramlintide Explained: The FDA-Approved Amylin Analog for Diabetes
What pramlintide is, how this FDA-approved amylin analog works alongside insulin, and how it compares to the newer amylin-pathway peptides now in development.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesOctreotide Explained: The FDA-Approved Somatostatin Analog Peptide
What octreotide is, how this FDA-approved somatostatin analog works, and what it's actually prescribed to treat.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesLeuprolide Explained: The FDA-Approved GnRH Agonist Peptide
What leuprolide is, how this FDA-approved GnRH agonist peptide works, and the range of conditions it's used to treat.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesSetmelanotide Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide for Genetic Obesity
Setmelanotide (Imcivree) is an FDA-approved peptide for rare, genetically driven forms of obesity that work through a completely different pathway than GLP-1 drugs.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesTeduglutide Explained: The FDA-Approved GLP-2 Peptide for Short Bowel Syndrome
Teduglutide (Gattex) is an FDA-approved GLP-2, not GLP-1, peptide that helps some short bowel syndrome patients reduce their dependence on intravenous nutrition.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesUBT251 Explained: The Novo Nordisk/United Biotechnology Triple Agonist in Development
What UBT251 is, how the investigational GLP-1/GIP/glucagon triple agonist performed in an early trial, and where it stands in Novo Nordisk's pipeline.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesEmideltide Explained: The Peptide an FDA Advisory Committee Voted Against
What emideltide is, why an FDA advisory committee declined to recommend it for pharmacy compounding, and what that rejection means going forward.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesHumanin Explained: The Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide Behind Longevity Research
What humanin is, how it differs from other longevity-marketed peptides like MOTS-c, and what the animal and human evidence actually shows.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesCathelicidin (LL-37) Explained: The Host-Defense Peptide Now Under FDA Review
What LL-37 is, what the antimicrobial-peptide research actually shows, and why it's one of five peptides the FDA plans to review at a second advisory panel in 2027.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesDihexa Explained: What the Research Says About This Nootropic Peptide
What dihexa is, why it's marketed as a nootropic, and why the FDA has scheduled it for advisory review alongside four other compounded peptides.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesKPV Explained: The Anti-Inflammatory Tripeptide FDA Advisors Backed for Compounding
What KPV is, the preclinical inflammatory bowel disease research behind it, and what an FDA advisory committee's compounding vote does and doesn't mean.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesMOTS-c Explained: The Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide FDA Advisors Backed for Compounding
What MOTS-c is, the metabolic research behind this mitochondrial-DNA-encoded peptide, and what an FDA advisory committee's compounding vote does and doesn't mean.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesSurvodutide Explained: A Glucagon/GLP-1 Dual Agonist in Late-Stage Trials
How Boehringer Ingelheim’s dual glucagon/GLP-1 agonist works, and what its first Phase 3 obesity results showed.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesVK2735 Explained: Viking Therapeutics’ Oral and Injectable GLP-1/GIP Candidate
Viking Therapeutics is developing VK2735 as both an oral tablet and an injectable, with Phase 3 trials now underway for the injectable form.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesTesamorelin Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide for HIV-Associated Lipodystrophy
What tesamorelin (Egrifta) is, the narrow FDA-approved use it actually has, and what the clinical evidence does and doesn't support.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesExenatide Explained: The Original GLP-1 Peptide That Started It All
How exenatide, discovered in Gila monster venom, became the first FDA-approved GLP-1 drug in 2005 and set the stage for semaglutide and tirzepatide.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesCagrilintide and CagriSema Explained: Pairing an Amylin Analog With Semaglutide
What cagrilintide is, how the amylin pathway differs from GLP-1, and what Phase 3 data shows about the combination therapy CagriSema, which remains under FDA review.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesAOD-9604 Explained: A Fat-Metabolism Fragment of Growth Hormone
What AOD-9604 is, its history as a failed obesity drug candidate, and what that means for current research-chemical marketing.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesBPC-157 Explained: What the Research Says About the "Body Protection Compound"
What the actual research shows about BPC-157, its regulatory status, and the gap between animal and human evidence.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesCJC-1295 Explained: Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone Analogs
How CJC-1295 works, its two main variants, and what research exists on growth hormone releasing hormone analogs.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesDSIP Explained: The "Sleep Peptide" and What Evidence Exists
What DSIP (delta sleep-inducing peptide) is, and why its name overstates the strength of its actual research evidence.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesEpithalon Explained: The Russian Longevity Peptide
What epithalon (epitalon) is, the Russian research behind it, and why its longevity claims outpace independent evidence.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesFollistatin 344 Explained: Myostatin Inhibition Research
What Follistatin 344 is, how it relates to myostatin inhibition, and why its safety profile is a particular concern.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesGHK-Cu Explained: The Copper Peptide Behind Skin and Wound Research
What GHK-Cu is, how it's used topically and by injection, and what research supports its use in skin and wound care.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesGHRP-2 and GHRP-6 Explained: Growth Hormone Releasing Peptides Compared
Comparing GHRP-2 and GHRP-6, two of the original growth hormone releasing peptides, and their distinct side effect profiles.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesHGH Fragment 176-191 Explained: The "Fat-Burning" Fragment
What HGH Fragment 176-191 is, its origin as a targeted growth hormone fragment, and what research exists.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesHexarelin Explained: A Potent Growth Hormone Secretagogue
What Hexarelin is, why it's considered more potent than other GHRPs, and what that means for its side effect profile.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesIGF-1 LR3 Explained: A Long-Acting Growth Factor Analog
What IGF-1 LR3 is, how it differs from natural IGF-1, and what safety concerns are specific to this compound.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesIpamorelin Explained: A Selective Growth Hormone Secretagogue
What makes ipamorelin different from other growth hormone releasing peptides, and what research exists behind it.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesKisspeptin-10 Explained: Reproductive Hormone Research
What Kisspeptin-10 is, its role in reproductive hormone signaling, and the state of clinical research behind it.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesLiraglutide Explained: The First-Generation GLP-1 Peptide
What liraglutide is, its place as the first widely used GLP-1 drug, and how it compares to semaglutide and tirzepatide.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesMK-677 (Ibutamoren) Explained: Is It Even a Peptide?
MK-677 (ibutamoren) explained: why it's technically not a peptide, how it works, and what research exists.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesMelanotan II Explained: Tanning Peptide Risks and Regulatory Status
What Melanotan II is, why it's not FDA-approved, and what documented risks exist for this tanning peptide.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesPEG-MGF Explained: Mechano Growth Factor Research
What PEG-MGF is, its proposed role in muscle repair after exercise, and why human research remains extremely limited.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesPT-141 (Bremelanotide) Explained: The FDA-Approved Peptide for Sexual Dysfunction
How PT-141 (bremelanotide) works, its FDA-approved use for HSDD, and what the clinical evidence shows.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesRetatrutide Explained: The Triple-Agonist Peptide in Late-Stage Trials
What retatrutide is, how its triple-agonist mechanism differs from tirzepatide, and where it stands in the trial pipeline.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesSelank Explained: An Anti-Anxiety Peptide From Russian Research
What Selank is, its origins in Russian pharmacology, and what research exists on its anti-anxiety effects.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesSemaglutide Explained: Mechanism, Approved Uses, and Evidence
A complete guide to semaglutide: mechanism, FDA-approved uses, and what the clinical trial evidence shows.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesSemax Explained: Nootropic Peptide Research and Origins
What Semax is, its Russian regulatory approval, and what research exists behind its nootropic reputation.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesSermorelin Explained: A Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone Therapy
What Sermorelin is, its history as a discontinued FDA-approved drug, and what that means for current products.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesTB-500 Explained: Thymosin Beta-4 and the Evidence Behind It
What thymosin beta-4 (TB-500) research actually shows, its regulatory status, and how it compares to BPC-157.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesThymosin Alpha-1 Explained: Immune Modulation Research
What thymosin alpha-1 is, its limited approved use outside the U.S., and what research exists on immune modulation.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesTirzepatide Explained: How It Works and What the Research Shows
A complete guide to tirzepatide: how it works, what its approved uses are, and what clinical trial data actually shows.
Read the guide → 📘 Peptide GuidesAmylin Agonists Explained: How Eloralintide and Cagrilintide Target a Different Pathway Than GLP-1 Drugs
What amylin agonists are, how they differ mechanistically from GLP-1 drugs like semaglutide, and what early trial data shows.
Read the guide →